, James Brand [aut]
| Title: | Vowel Covariation Tools |
|---|---|
| Description: | Tools to support research on vowel covariation. Methods are provided to support Principal Component Analysis workflows (as in Brand et al. (2021) <doi:10.1016/j.wocn.2021.101096> and Wilson Black et al. (2023) <doi:10.1515/lingvan-2022-0086>). |
| Authors: | Joshua Wilson Black [aut, cre, cph]
, James Brand [aut]
|
| Maintainer: | Joshua Wilson Black <[email protected]> |
| License: | MIT + file LICENSE |
| Version: | 0.3.1 |
| Built: | 2024-11-29 13:56:37 UTC |
| Source: | CRAN |
Permute data a given number (n) of times, collecting pairwise correlations
and testing them for significance. See plot_correlation_magnitudes() and
plot_correlation_counts() for plotting functions which take the output of
this function.
correlation_test(pca_data, n = 100, cor.method = "pearson")correlation_test(pca_data, n = 100, cor.method = "pearson")
pca_data |
dataframe or matrix containing only continuous variables.
(as accepted by the |
n |
the number of times (integer) to permute that data. Warning: high values will take a long time to compute. Default: 100. |
cor.method |
method to use for correlations (default = "pearson").
Alternative is "spearman" (see |
object of class correlation_test, with attributes:
$permuted_correlations A tibble of length n of pairs from the original
data, their correlations, and the significance of each correlation (as
p-values).
$actual_correlations the correlations of each pair of variables
in the original data and their significance (as p-values).
$iterations the number of permutations carried out.
$cor_method the form of correlation used.
# get a small sample of random intercepts. pca_data <- onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker) |> dplyr::slice_sample(n=10) # apply correlation test with 10 permutations. # actual use requires at least 100. cor_test <- correlation_test(pca_data, n = 10, cor.method = 'pearson') # Return summary of significant correlations summary(cor_test) # use spearman correlation instead. cor_test_spear <- correlation_test(pca_data, n = 10, cor.method = 'spearman')# get a small sample of random intercepts. pca_data <- onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker) |> dplyr::slice_sample(n=10) # apply correlation test with 10 permutations. # actual use requires at least 100. cor_test <- correlation_test(pca_data, n = 10, cor.method = 'pearson') # Return summary of significant correlations summary(cor_test) # use spearman correlation instead. cor_test_spear <- correlation_test(pca_data, n = 10, cor.method = 'spearman')
lobanov_2() takes a data frame where the first four columns are:
speaker identifiers,
vowel identifiers,
first formant values in Hertz,
second formant values in Hertz.
It returns a dataframe with two additional columns, F1_lob2 and F2_lob2,
containing normalised formant values.
lobanov_2(vowel_data)lobanov_2(vowel_data)
vowel_data |
a dataframe whose first four columns are speaker ids, vowel ids, F1 values, and F2 values. |
This functions applies Lobanov 2.0 normalisation presented in Brand et al. (2021). This variant of Lobanov normalisation is designed to work for datasets whether the vowel types have different token counts from one another. The Lobanov 2.0 value for a vowel is given by
where, for ease of notation, we assume all values are from a single speaker. We signify the n vowel types as vowel_1, ..., vowel_2, while i indicates the formant number. We implement the function for F1 and F2.
a dataframe matching the input dataframe with additional columns
F1_lob2 and F2_lob2, containing the lobanov normalised F1 and F2 values
respectively.
Brand, James, Jen Hay, Lynn Clark, Kevin Watson & Márton Sóskuthy (2021): Systematic co-variation of monophthongs across speakers of New Zealand English. Journal of Phonetics. Elsevier. 88. 101096. doi:10.1016/j.wocn.2021.101096
normed_vowels <- lobanov_2(onze_vowels) head(normed_vowels)normed_vowels <- lobanov_2(onze_vowels) head(normed_vowels)
![[Experimental]](data:image/svg+xml;base64,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)
Generate bootstrapped confidence intervals and permutation based null
distribution for MDS analysis. Output shows how much stress is reduced by
adding an additional dimension to the MDS analysis of similarity_matrix,
and bootstrapped iterations of similarity_matrix,
compared with the stress reduction expected from a matrix with no meaningful
structure. This function is inspired by pca_test(), but is less connected
with statistical literature than that function. We currently reject
additional dimensions is they reduce less stress than we would expect by
chance. That is, when the distribution from the boostrapped analyses sits
notably lower than the permuted distribution when plotted by plot_mds_test()
mds_test( similarity_matrix, n_boots = 50, n_perms = 50, test_dimensions = 5, principal = TRUE, mds_type = "ordinal", spline_degree = 2, spline_int_knots = 2 )mds_test( similarity_matrix, n_boots = 50, n_perms = 50, test_dimensions = 5, principal = TRUE, mds_type = "ordinal", spline_degree = 2, spline_int_knots = 2 )
similarity_matrix |
Square matrix of speaker similarity scores. |
n_boots |
Number of bootstrapping iterations (default: 25). |
n_perms |
Number of permutations (default: 25). |
test_dimensions |
Number of MDS dimensions to test for stress reduction (default: 5). |
principal |
Whether to apply principal axis transform to MDS (default: TRUE) |
mds_type |
What kind of MDS to apply, see |
spline_degree |
How many spline degrees when |
spline_int_knots |
How many internal knots when |
object of class mds_test_results, containing:
$stress_reduction a tibble containing
$n_boots Number of bootstrapping iterations.
$n_perms Number of permutation iterations
$mds_type Type of MDS analysis (type argument passed to
smacof::smacofSym())
$principal Whether principal axis transformation is applied (passed to
smacof::smacofSym())
# Apply interval MDS to `sim_matrix`, with 5 permutations and bootstraps # testing up to 3 dimensions. In real usage, increase `n_boots` and `n_perms` # to at least 50. mds_test( sim_matrix, n_boots = 5, n_perms = 5, test_dimensions = 3, mds_type = 'interval' )# Apply interval MDS to `sim_matrix`, with 5 permutations and bootstraps # testing up to 3 dimensions. In real usage, increase `n_boots` and `n_perms` # to at least 50. mds_test( sim_matrix, n_boots = 5, n_perms = 5, test_dimensions = 3, mds_type = 'interval' )
A dataset containing the speaker intercepts extracted from GAMM models fit in Brand et al. (2021).
onze_interceptsonze_intercepts
A data frame with 100 rows and 21 variables:
Anonymised speaker code (character).
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of DRESS F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of DRESS F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of FLEECE F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of FLEECE F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of GOOSE F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of GOOSE F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of KIT F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of KIT F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of LOT F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of LOT F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of NURSE F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of NURSE F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of START F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of START F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of STRUT F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of STRUT F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of THOUGHT F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of THOUGHT F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of TRAP F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of TRAP F2.
Brand, James, Jen Hay, Lynn Clark, Kevin Watson & Márton Sóskuthy (2021): Systematic co-variation of monophthongs across speakers of New Zealand English. Journal of Phonetics. Elsevier. 88. 101096. doi:10.1016/j.wocn.2021.101096
A dataset containing the speaker intercepts extracted from GAMM models fit in Brand et al. (2021).
onze_intercepts_fullonze_intercepts_full
A data frame with 481 rows and 21 variables:
Anonymised speaker code.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of DRESS F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of DRESS F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of FLEECE F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of FLEECE F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of GOOSE F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of GOOSE F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of KIT F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of KIT F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of LOT F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of LOT F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of NURSE F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of NURSE F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of START F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of START F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of STRUT F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of STRUT F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of THOUGHT F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of THOUGHT F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of TRAP F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of TRAP F2.
Brand, James, Jen Hay, Lynn Clark, Kevin Watson & Márton Sóskuthy (2021): Systematic co-variation of monophthongs across speakers of New Zealand English. Journal of Phonetics. Elsevier. 88. 101096. doi:10.1016/j.wocn.2021.101096
A dataset containing the the first and second formants, speech rate, gender, and year of birth for 100 random speakers from the ONZE corpus. 50 speakers are sampled with birth years before 1900 and 50 sampled with birth years on or after 1900 to ensure a full span of the time period. Data is present for the following NZE monophthongs, represented by Wells lexical sets: DRESS, FLEECE, GOOSE, KIT, LOT, NURSE, START, STRUT, THOUGHT, TRAP. Data for FOOT is excluded due to low token counts.
onze_vowelsonze_vowels
A dataframe with 101572 rows and 8 variables:
Anonymised speaker code (factor).
Variable with Wells lexical sets for 10 NZE monophthongs. Levels: DRESS, FLEECE, GOOSE, KIT, LOT, NURSE, START, STRUT, THOUGHT, TRAP (factor).
First formant, extracted from vowel mid-point using LaBB-CAT interface with Praat.
Second formant, extracted from vowel mid-point using LaBB-CAT interface with Praat.
Average speaker speech rate for whole recording.
Gender of speaker, two levels: "M", "F" (factor).
Year of birth of speaker.
Anonymised word code (factor).
This dataset is derived from the data made available in the supplementary materials of Brand et al. (2021).
Brand, James, Jen Hay, Lynn Clark, Kevin Watson & Márton Sóskuthy (2021): Systematic co-variation of monophthongs across speakers of New Zealand English. Journal of Phonetics. Elsevier. 88. 101096. doi:10.1016/j.wocn.2021.101096
A dataset containing the the first and second formants, speech rate, gender, and year of birth for 481 speakers from the ONZE corpus. 50 speakers are sampled with birth years before 1900 and 50 sampled with birth years on or after 1900 to ensure a full span of the time period. Data is present for the following NZE monophthongs, represented by Wells lexical sets: DRESS, FLEECE, GOOSE, KIT, LOT, NURSE, START, STRUT, THOUGHT, TRAP. Data for FOOT is excluded due to low token counts.
onze_vowels_fullonze_vowels_full
A data frame with 414679 rows and 8 variables:
Anonymised speaker code (factor).
Variable with Wells lexical sets for 10 NZE monophthongs. Levels: DRESS, FLEECE, GOOSE, KIT, LOT, NURSE, START, STRUT, THOUGHT, TRAP (factor).
First formant, extracted from vowel mid-point using LaBB-CAT interface with Praat.
Second formant, extracted from vowel mid-point using LaBB-CAT interface with Praat.
Average speaker speech rate for whole recording.
Gender of speaker, two levels: "M", "F" (factor).
Year of birth of speaker.
Anonymised word code (factor).
This dataset is derived from the data made available in the supplementary materials of Brand et al. (2021).
Brand, James, Jen Hay, Lynn Clark, Kevin Watson & Márton Sóskuthy (2021): Systematic co-variation of monophthongs across speakers of New Zealand English. Journal of Phonetics. Elsevier. 88. 101096. doi:10.1016/j.wocn.2021.101096
The sign of the loadings and scores generated by PCA is arbitrary. Sometimes
it is convenient to flip them so that all positive loadings/scores become
negative (and vice versa). Sometimes one direction leads to a more natural
interpretation. It is also useful when comparing the results of PCA across
multiple data sets. This function will flip loadings and scores for PCA
analyses carried out by the base R prcomp() and princomp() functions and
for the pca_test() function from this package. If you specify only pc_no
you will flip the loadings and scores for that PC. You can also specify a
variable which you would like to have a positive loading in the resulting
PCA.
pc_flip(pca_obj, pc_no, flip_var = NULL)pc_flip(pca_obj, pc_no, flip_var = NULL)
pca_obj |
The result of a call to |
pc_no |
An integer, indicating which PC is to be flipped. |
flip_var |
An optional name of a variable which will become positive
in the PC indicated by |
An object matching the class of pca_obj with relevant PC modified.
pca_obj <- prcomp(onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker), scale=TRUE) # flip the second PC flipped_pca <- pc_flip(pca_obj, pc_no = 2) # flip (if necessary) the third PC, so that the "F1_GOOSE" variable has # a positive loading flipped_pca <- pc_flip(pca_obj, pc_no = 3, flip_var = "F1_GOOSE")pca_obj <- prcomp(onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker), scale=TRUE) # flip the second PC flipped_pca <- pc_flip(pca_obj, pc_no = 2) # flip (if necessary) the third PC, so that the "F1_GOOSE" variable has # a positive loading flipped_pca <- pc_flip(pca_obj, pc_no = 3, flip_var = "F1_GOOSE")
Plot the contribution of each variable in a data set to a given Principal Component (PC). Variables are arranged by ascending contribution to the PC, where contribution is the squared loading for the variable expressed as a percentage. These plots match those given in supplementary material for Brand et al. (2021).
pca_contrib_plot(pca_object, pc_no = 1, cutoff = 50)pca_contrib_plot(pca_object, pc_no = 1, cutoff = 50)
pca_object |
a pca object generated by |
pc_no |
the PC to be visualised. Default value is 1. |
cutoff |
the cutoff value for interpretation of the PC. Determines what
total percentage contribution we want from the variables we select for
interpretation. The default of 50 means that we pick the variables with the
highest contribution to the PC until we have accounted for 50% of the total
contributions to the PC. Can be set to |
As with the other plotting functions in this package, the result is a
ggplot2 plot. It can be modified using ggplot2 functions (see, e.g.,
plot_correlation_magnitudes().
ggplot object.
Brand, James, Jen Hay, Lynn Clark, Kevin Watson & Márton Sóskuthy (2021): Systematic co-variation of monophthongs across speakers of New Zealand English. Journal of Phonetics. Elsevier. 88. 101096. doi:10.1016/j.wocn.2021.101096
onze_pca <- prcomp(onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker), scale = TRUE) # Plot PC1 with a cutoff value of 60% pca_contrib_plot(onze_pca, pc_no = 1, cutoff = 60) # Plot PC2 with no cutoff value. pca_contrib_plot(onze_pca, pc_no = 2, cutoff = NULL)onze_pca <- prcomp(onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker), scale = TRUE) # Plot PC1 with a cutoff value of 60% pca_contrib_plot(onze_pca, pc_no = 1, cutoff = 60) # Plot PC2 with no cutoff value. pca_contrib_plot(onze_pca, pc_no = 2, cutoff = NULL)
Permute and bootstrap data fed to PCA n times. Bootstrapped data is used to
estimate confidence bands for variance explained by each PC and for each
loading. Squared loadings are multiplied by the squared eigenvalue of the
relevant PC. This ranks the loadings of PCs which explain a lot of variance
higher than those from PCs which explain less. This approach to PCA testing
follows Carmago (2022) and Vieria (2012). This approach differs from
Carmago's PCAtest package by separating data generation and plotting.
pca_test( pca_data, n = 100, scale = TRUE, variance_confint = 0.95, loadings_confint = 0.9 )pca_test( pca_data, n = 100, scale = TRUE, variance_confint = 0.95, loadings_confint = 0.9 )
pca_data |
data fed to the |
n |
the number of times to permute and bootstrap that data. Warning: high values will take a long time to compute. |
scale |
whether the PCA variables should be scaled (default: TRUE). |
variance_confint |
size of confidence intervals for variance explained (default: 0.95). |
loadings_confint |
size of confidence intervals for index loadings (default: 0.9). |
Default confidence bands on variance explained at 0.95 (i.e. alpha of 0.05). In line with Vieria (2012), the default confidence bands on the index loadings are at 0.9.
See plot_loadings() and plot_variance_explained() for useful plotting
functions.
object of class pca_test_results, containing:
$variance a tibble containing the variances explained and confidence
intervals for each PC.
$loadings a tibble containing the index loadings and confidence intervals
for each variable and PC.
$raw_data a tibble containing the variance explained and loadings for
each bootstrapped and permuted analysis.
$variance_confint confidence intervals applied to variance explained.
$loadings_confint confidence interval applied to loadings.
$n the number of iterations of both permutation and bootstrapping.
Camargo, Arley (2022), PCAtest: testing the statistical significance of Principal Component Analysis in R. PeerJ 10. e12967. doi:10.7717/peerj.12967
Vieira, Vasco (2012): Permutation tests to estimate significances on Principal Components Analysis. Computational Ecology and Software 2. 103–123.
onze_pca <- pca_test( onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker), n = 10, scale = TRUE ) summary(onze_pca)onze_pca <- pca_test( onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker), n = 10, scale = TRUE ) summary(onze_pca)
![[Superseded]](data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHhtbG5zOnhsaW5rPSJodHRwOi8vd3d3LnczLm9yZy8xOTk5L3hsaW5rIiB3aWR0aD0iMTI4IiBoZWlnaHQ9IjIwIiByb2xlPSJpbWciIGFyaWEtbGFiZWw9ImxpZmVjeWNsZTogc3VwZXJzZWRlZCI+CiAgICA8dGl0bGU+bGlmZWN5Y2xlOiBzdXBlcnNlZGVkPC90aXRsZT4KICAgIDxsaW5lYXJHcmFkaWVudCBpZD0icyIgeDI9IjAiIHkyPSIxMDAlIj4KICAgICAgICA8c3RvcCBvZmZzZXQ9IjAiIHN0b3AtY29sb3I9IiNiYmIiIHN0b3Atb3BhY2l0eT0iLjEiIC8+CiAgICAgICAgPHN0b3Agb2Zmc2V0PSIxIiBzdG9wLW9wYWNpdHk9Ii4xIiAvPgogICAgPC9saW5lYXJHcmFkaWVudD4KICAgIDxjbGlwUGF0aCBpZD0iciI+CiAgICAgICAgPHJlY3Qgd2lkdGg9IjEyOCIgaGVpZ2h0PSIyMCIgcng9IjMiIGZpbGw9IiNmZmYiIC8+CiAgICA8L2NsaXBQYXRoPgogICAgPGcgY2xpcC1wYXRoPSJ1cmwoI3IpIj4KICAgICAgICA8cmVjdCB3aWR0aD0iNTUiIGhlaWdodD0iMjAiIGZpbGw9IiM1NTUiIC8+CiAgICAgICAgPHJlY3QgeD0iNTUiIHdpZHRoPSI3MyIgaGVpZ2h0PSIyMCIgZmlsbD0iIzAwN2VjNiIgLz4KICAgICAgICA8cmVjdCB3aWR0aD0iMTI4IiBoZWlnaHQ9IjIwIiBmaWxsPSJ1cmwoI3MpIiAvPgogICAgPC9nPgogICAgPGcgZmlsbD0iI2ZmZiIgdGV4dC1hbmNob3I9Im1pZGRsZSIgZm9udC1mYW1pbHk9IlZlcmRhbmEsR2VuZXZhLERlamFWdSBTYW5zLHNhbnMtc2VyaWYiIHRleHQtcmVuZGVyaW5nPSJnZW9tZXRyaWNQcmVjaXNpb24iIGZvbnQtc2l6ZT0iMTEwIj4KICAgICAgICA8dGV4dCBhcmlhLWhpZGRlbj0idHJ1ZSIgeD0iMjg1IiB5PSIxNTAiIGZpbGw9IiMwMTAxMDEiIGZpbGwtb3BhY2l0eT0iLjMiIHRyYW5zZm9ybT0ic2NhbGUoLjEpIiB0ZXh0TGVuZ3RoPSI0NTAiPmxpZmVjeWNsZTwvdGV4dD4KICAgICAgICA8dGV4dCB4PSIyODUiIHk9IjE0MCIgdHJhbnNmb3JtPSJzY2FsZSguMSkiIGZpbGw9IiNmZmYiIHRleHRMZW5ndGg9IjQ1MCI+bGlmZWN5Y2xlPC90ZXh0PgogICAgICAgIDx0ZXh0IGFyaWEtaGlkZGVuPSJ0cnVlIiB4PSI5MDUiIHk9IjE1MCIgZmlsbD0iIzAxMDEwMSIgZmlsbC1vcGFjaXR5PSIuMyIgdHJhbnNmb3JtPSJzY2FsZSguMSkiIHRleHRMZW5ndGg9IjYzMCI+c3VwZXJzZWRlZDwvdGV4dD4KICAgICAgICA8dGV4dCB4PSI5MDUiIHk9IjE0MCIgdHJhbnNmb3JtPSJzY2FsZSguMSkiIGZpbGw9IiNmZmYiIHRleHRMZW5ndGg9IjYzMCI+c3VwZXJzZWRlZDwvdGV4dD4KICAgIDwvZz4KPC9zdmc+Cg==)
Permute data fed to PCA a given number of times, collecting the number of
significant pairwise correlations in the permuted data and the variances
explained for a given number of PCs.
permutation_test( pca_data, pc_n = 5, n = 100, scale = TRUE, cor.method = "pearson" )permutation_test( pca_data, pc_n = 5, n = 100, scale = TRUE, cor.method = "pearson" )
pca_data |
data fed to the |
pc_n |
the number of PCs to collect variance explained from. |
n |
the number of times to permute that data. Warning: high values will take a long time to compute. |
scale |
whether the PCA variables should be scaled (default = TRUE). |
cor.method |
method to use for correlations (default = "pearson"). Alternative is "spearman". |
This function is now superseded. Use correlation_test() for pairwise
correlations and pca_test() for variance explained and loadings.
object of class permutation_test
$permuted_variances n x pc_no matrix of variances explained by first
pc_no PCs in n permutations of original data.
$permuted_correlations list of length n of significant pairwise
correlations in n permutations of the data (<= 0.05).
$actual_variances pc_n x 2 tibble of variances explained by first pc_n
PCs with original data.
$actual_correlations the number of significant pairwise correlations (<=
0.05) in the original data.
permutation_test( onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker), pc_n = 5, n = 10, scale = TRUE, cor.method = 'pearson' )permutation_test( onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker), pc_n = 5, n = 10, scale = TRUE, cor.method = 'pearson' )
correlation_test objectPlot the number of statistically significant pairwise correlations in a data set given an alpha value against the distribution of counts of statistically significant pairwise correlations in permuted data. This is an informal test which is useful to convincing yourself that there is structure in your data which PCA might be able to uncover.
plot_correlation_counts(cor_test, alpha = 0.05, half_violin = FALSE)plot_correlation_counts(cor_test, alpha = 0.05, half_violin = FALSE)
cor_test |
an object of class |
alpha |
significance level for counting correlation as significant. |
half_violin |
Plot correlation counts using a half violin plot and half point plot. Quantiles are not currently supported. |
The resulting plot presents the distribution of counts of statistically significant correlations at a given alpha level in the permuted data and the count of statistically significant correlations in the original data. If the red dot is above the uppermost line inside the blue violin plot, we say the number of statistically significant correlations in the real data is itself statistically significant. Usually this is used as a rough sanity check in the course of a PCA workflow and we want to see the red dot well above the violin (as in the example below).
The resulting plot is a ggplot2 plot and can be modified using functions
from that package. For instance, titles can be removed using the ggplot2::labs()
function (as in the examples below).
ggplot object.
# Test correlations (use at least n = 100) cor_test <- correlation_test(onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker), n = 10) cor_plot <- plot_correlation_counts(cor_test) cor_plot # make statistical test more strict by reducing the alpha. cor_plot_strict <- plot_correlation_counts(cor_test, alpha = 0.01) # modify plot using `ggplot2` functions, e.g. cor_plot_strict + ggplot2::labs(title = NULL) + ggplot2::theme_bw()# Test correlations (use at least n = 100) cor_test <- correlation_test(onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker), n = 10) cor_plot <- plot_correlation_counts(cor_test) cor_plot # make statistical test more strict by reducing the alpha. cor_plot_strict <- plot_correlation_counts(cor_test, alpha = 0.01) # modify plot using `ggplot2` functions, e.g. cor_plot_strict + ggplot2::labs(title = NULL) + ggplot2::theme_bw()
correlation_test objectThis plot type is used in Brand et al. (2021). It presents the magnitudes of the correlations from the real data as a solid red line, and the correlations from each iteration of the permutation test as light blue lines. This gives a visual sense of the distribution of random correlations compared with those in the actual data. If there are significant pairwise correlations in the data, the thick red line should be visually lower and wider across the plot than the thinner blue lines. If there are no significant pairwise correlations, then the thick red line will have the same shape as the blue lines.
plot_correlation_magnitudes(cor_test)plot_correlation_magnitudes(cor_test)
cor_test |
an object of class |
ggplot object.
Brand, James, Jen Hay, Lynn Clark, Kevin Watson & Márton Sóskuthy (2021): Systematic co-variation of monophthongs across speakers of New Zealand English. Journal of Phonetics. Elsevier. 88. 101096. doi:10.1016/j.wocn.2021.101096
# Test correlations (use at least n = 100) cor_test <- correlation_test(onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker), n = 10) cor_plot <- plot_correlation_magnitudes(cor_test) cor_plot # modify plot using `ggplot2` functions, e.g. cor_plot + ggplot2::labs(title = NULL) + ggplot2::theme_bw()# Test correlations (use at least n = 100) cor_test <- correlation_test(onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker), n = 10) cor_plot <- plot_correlation_magnitudes(cor_test) cor_plot # modify plot using `ggplot2` functions, e.g. cor_plot + ggplot2::labs(title = NULL) + ggplot2::theme_bw()
pca_test object.Index loadings (Vieira 2012) are presented with confidence intervals on the sampling distribution generated by bootstrapping and a null distribution generated by permutation.
plot_loadings( pca_test, pc_no = 1, violin = FALSE, filter_boots = FALSE, quantile_threshold = 0.25 )plot_loadings( pca_test, pc_no = 1, violin = FALSE, filter_boots = FALSE, quantile_threshold = 0.25 )
pca_test |
an object of class pca_test_results generated by |
pc_no |
An integer indicating which PC to plot. |
violin |
If TRUE, violin plots are added for the confidence intervals of the sampling distribution. |
filter_boots |
if TRUE, only bootstrap iterations in which the variable
with the highest median loading is above |
quantile_threshold |
a real value between 0 and 1. Use this to change the threshold used for filtering bootstrap iterations. The default is 0.25. |
If PCs are unstable, there is an option (filter_boots) to take only the
bootstrap iterations in which the variable with the highest median loading
across all iterations is above quantile_threshold (default: 0.25). This
helps to reveal reliable connections of this variable with other variables in
the data set.
ggplot object.
Vieira, Vasco (2012): Permutation tests to estimate significances on Principal Components Analysis. Computational Ecology and Software 2. 103–123.
onze_pca <- pca_test(onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker), n = 10) # Plot PC1 plot_loadings(onze_pca, pc_no=1) # Plot PC2 with violins (not particularly useful in this case!) plot_loadings(onze_pca, pc_no=2, violin = TRUE)onze_pca <- pca_test(onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker), n = 10) # Plot PC1 plot_loadings(onze_pca, pc_no=1) # Plot PC2 with violins (not particularly useful in this case!) plot_loadings(onze_pca, pc_no=2, violin = TRUE)
mds_test() results Plot output from mds_test().
plot_mds_test(mds_test)plot_mds_test(mds_test)
mds_test |
Object of class |
ggplot object.
mds_result <- mds_test( sim_matrix, n_boots = 10, n_perms = 10, test_dimensions = 3, mds_type = 'interval' ) plot_mds_test(mds_result)mds_result <- mds_test( sim_matrix, n_boots = 10, n_perms = 10, test_dimensions = 3, mds_type = 'interval' ) plot_mds_test(mds_result)
It is sometimes useful to see the relationship between PCs and the raw values
of the input data fed into PCA. This function takes the results of running
pca_test, the scores for each speaker from the pca object, and the raw data
fed into the PCA analysis. In the usual model-to-pca analysis pipeline, the
resulting plot depicts by-speaker random intercepts for each vowel and an
indication of which variables are significantly loaded onto the PCs. It
allows the researcher to visualise the strength of the relationship between
intercepts and PC scores.
plot_pc_input(pca_object, pca_data, pca_test)plot_pc_input(pca_object, pca_data, pca_test)
pca_object |
Output of |
pca_data |
Data fed into |
pca_test |
Output of |
a ggplot object.
pca_data <- onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker) onze_pca <- prcomp(pca_data, scale = TRUE) onze_pca_test <- pca_test(pca_data, n = 10) plot_pc_input(onze_pca, pca_data, onze_pca_test)pca_data <- onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker) onze_pca <- prcomp(pca_data, scale = TRUE) onze_pca_test <- pca_test(pca_data, n = 10) plot_pc_input(onze_pca, pca_data, onze_pca_test)
Plot loadings from a PCA analysis carried out on vocalic data. Vowel positions mean values are at the mean with arrows indicating loadings. Loadings are multiplied by the standard deviation, by vowel, of the initial input data. This is OK for getting a quick, intuitive, interpretation of what the PCs mean in the vowel space. When using a model-to-PCA pipeline, it is not recommended to use these plots directly in publications as the models should more reliably control variation in vocalic readings than taking the standard mean and standard deviation.
plot_pc_vs(vowel_data, pca_obj, pc_no = 1, is_sig = FALSE)plot_pc_vs(vowel_data, pca_obj, pc_no = 1, is_sig = FALSE)
vowel_data |
A dataframe whose first four columns are speaker ids, vowel ids, F1 values, and F2 values. |
pca_obj |
The result of a call to |
pc_no |
An integer, indicating which PC to plot (default is PC1). |
is_sig |
A boolean, indicating whether only 'significant' loadings,
according to |
a ggplot object.
onze_pca <- prcomp(onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker), scale=TRUE) # Default is to plot PC1 plot_pc_vs(onze_vowels, onze_pca) # Or plot another PC with `pc_no` plot_pc_vs(onze_vowels, onze_pca, pc_no = 3)onze_pca <- prcomp(onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker), scale=TRUE) # Default is to plot PC1 plot_pc_vs(onze_vowels, onze_pca) # Or plot another PC with `pc_no` plot_pc_vs(onze_vowels, onze_pca, pc_no = 3)
permutation_test(). Plots results of a permutation test
carried out with the permutation_test() function. Now use either
correlation_test() or pca_test() and the associated plotting functions.
plot_permutation_test(permutation_results, violin = FALSE)plot_permutation_test(permutation_results, violin = FALSE)
permutation_results |
object of class |
violin |
Determines whether the variances explained are depicted by
distinct violin plots for each PC or by connected lines. the advantage of
lines is that they correctly indicate that values for each PC depend on one
another within a given permutation. That is, if an earlier PC soaks up a
lot of the variation in a data set, then there is less variation left to
explain by subsequent PCs. Default value is |
ggplot object.
onze_perm <- permutation_test( onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker), pc_n = 5, n = 10, scale = TRUE, cor.method = 'pearson' ) plot_permutation_test(onze_perm)onze_perm <- permutation_test( onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker), pc_n = 5, n = 10, scale = TRUE, cor.method = 'pearson' ) plot_permutation_test(onze_perm)
pca_test objectThe variance explained by each PC in a dataset is plotted with confidence
intervals generated by bootstrapping and a null distribution generated by
permutation. The function accepts the result of calling the pca_test
function.
plot_variance_explained(pca_test, pc_max = NA, percent = TRUE)plot_variance_explained(pca_test, pc_max = NA, percent = TRUE)
pca_test |
an object of class pca_test_results generated by |
pc_max |
the maximum number of PCs to plot. If NA, plot all PCs. |
percent |
if TRUE, represent variance explained as a percentage. If FALSE, represent as eigenvalues. |
By default, variance explained is represented as a percentage. If the
argument percent is set to FALSE, then the variance explained is
represented by the eigenvalues corresponding to each PC.
ggplot object.
onze_pca <- pca_test(onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker), n = 10) # Plot with percentages plot_variance_explained(onze_pca) # Plot with eigenvalues and only the first 5 PCs. plot_variance_explained(onze_pca, pc_max = 5, percent = FALSE)onze_pca <- pca_test(onze_intercepts |> dplyr::select(-speaker), n = 10) # Plot with percentages plot_variance_explained(onze_pca) # Plot with eigenvalues and only the first 5 PCs. plot_variance_explained(onze_pca, pc_max = 5, percent = FALSE)
Given vowel data with the first column identifying speakers, the second identifying vowels, the third containing F1 and the fourth containing F2 values, plot a vowel space using the speaker's mean values for each vowel. Typically it is best to produce a plot from scratch. The primary purpose of this function is to generate quick plots for interactive use, rather than to produce plots for publication.
plot_vowel_space( vowel_data, speakers = NULL, vowel_colours = NULL, label_size = 4, means_only = TRUE, ellipses = FALSE, point_alpha = 0.1, facet = TRUE )plot_vowel_space( vowel_data, speakers = NULL, vowel_colours = NULL, label_size = 4, means_only = TRUE, ellipses = FALSE, point_alpha = 0.1, facet = TRUE )
vowel_data |
data frame of vowel tokens as described above. |
speakers |
list of speaker identifiers for speaker whose vowel space is to be plotted. |
vowel_colours |
a named list of vowel = colour entries to indicate which colour to plot each vowel. |
label_size |
It is often convenient to adjust the size of the labels (in pts). Default is 4. |
means_only |
whether to plot means only or all data points. Default: TRUE. |
ellipses |
whether to 95% confidence ellipses. Only works if means_only is FALSE. Default is FALSE. |
point_alpha |
alpha value for data points if means_only is FALSE. |
facet |
whether to plot distinct speakers in distinct facets. Default is TRUE. |
ggplot object.
# Plot mean vowel space across plot_vowel_space( onze_vowels, speakers = NULL, vowel_colours = NULL, label_size = 4, means_only = TRUE, ellipses = FALSE, point_alpha = 0.1, facet = FALSE )# Plot mean vowel space across plot_vowel_space( onze_vowels, speakers = NULL, vowel_colours = NULL, label_size = 4, means_only = TRUE, ellipses = FALSE, point_alpha = 0.1, facet = FALSE )
QuakeBox monologues are divided into intervals of fixed length within mean
values are calcualted for formants, amplitude, and articulation rate. Data
from 77 speakers is provide (the same sample as qb_vowels).
qb_intervalsqb_intervals
A data frame with 53940 rows and 10 variables:
Length of interval in seconds.
Anonymised speaker code (char).
Time in seconds at which interval ends.
Mean articulation rate within interval.
Mean maximum amplitude within interval.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of DRESS F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of DRESS F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of FLEECE F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of FLEECE F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of GOOSE F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of GOOSE F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of KIT F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of KIT F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of LOT F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of LOT F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of NURSE F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of NURSE F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of START F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of START F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of STRUT F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of STRUT F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of THOUGHT F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of THOUGHT F2.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of TRAP F1.
Speaker intercept from GAMM model of TRAP F2.
Two interval lengths are given: 60 seconds and 240 seconds.
Formant data is z-scored by speaker and vowel, while the amplitude and articulation rate are z-scored by speaker.
Original data was generated for Wilson Black et al. (2023).
Wilson Black, Joshua, Jennifer Hay, Lynn Clark & James Brand (2023): The overlooked effect of amplitude on within-speaker vowel variation. Linguistics Vanguard. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. 9(1). 173–189. doi:10.1515/lingvan-2022-0086
A dataset containing formant values, amplitude, articulation rate, and following segment data for 10 New Zealand English monophthongs, along with participant demographics.
qb_vowelsqb_vowels
A data frame with 26331 rows and 14 variables:
Anonymised speaker code (char).
Wells lexical sets for 10 NZE monophthongs. Levels: DRESS, FLEECE, GOOSE, KIT, LOT, NURSE, START, STRUT, THOUGHT, TRAP, FOOT (char).
First formant in Hz, extracted from vowel mid-point using LaBB-CAT interface with Praat.
Second formant in Hz, extracted from vowel mid-point using LaBB-CAT interface with Praat.
Age category of speaker. Values: 18-25, 26-35, 36-45, ..., 76-85 (char).
Gender of participant. Values: M, F (char).
New Zealand ethnic category of participant. Values: NZ mixed ethnicity, NZ European, Other (char).
Frequency of word from which vowel token is taken in CELEX.
Anonymised word id (char).
Time in seconds at which vowel segment starts.
Length of vowel in seconds.
Articulation rate of utterance from which token is taken.
Category of following segment. NB: liquids have already been removed. Levels: labial, velar, other (factor).
Maximum amplitude of word from which vowel token is taken, generated by LaBB-CAT interface with Praat.
Original data was generated for Wilson Black et al. (2023).
Wilson Black, Joshua, Jennifer Hay, Lynn Clark & James Brand (2023): The overlooked effect of amplitude on within-speaker vowel variation. Linguistics Vanguard. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. 9(1). 173–189. doi:10.1515/lingvan-2022-0086
Mean similarity ratings for 38 QuakeBox speakers from an online pairwise similarity task. Random noise added.
sim_matrixsim_matrix
A 38x38 matrix
Set alpha to change significance level and n_cors to change number of pairwise correlations given.
## S3 method for class 'correlation_test' summary(object, alpha = 0.05, n_cors = 5, ...)## S3 method for class 'correlation_test' summary(object, alpha = 0.05, n_cors = 5, ...)
object |
object of class |
alpha |
significance level for counting correlation as significant. |
n_cors |
number of pairwise correlations to list. |
... |
additional arguments affecting the summary produced. |
a glue object.